Udaharana

Udaharana (उदाहरण) means “illustration” or “example.” It is the third member of the Nyaya five-membered syllogism, providing a concrete instance that demonstrates the universal concomitance between the reason and the property to be proved.

Overview

In the standard Nyaya example: “Wherever there is smoke, there is fire — as in a kitchen.” The kitchen serves as the udaharana, illustrating the universal relationship between smoke and fire. The udaharana makes the abstract logical connection tangible through a familiar case accepted by both the speaker and listener.

Philosophical Context

The udaharana functions as the inductive grounding of the syllogism. While the hetu establishes the reason, the udaharana demonstrates that the reason and the property to be proved are invariably connected (vyabhicharabhinna). A valid udaharana must: (1) contain both the reason (hetu) and the property to be proved (sadhya), (2) be accepted by the opponent, and (3) illustrate the universal relationship (samanyabodhaka). If the example contains a counter-example or fails to show the invariable connection, the syllogism is fallacious.

Interpretations

Buddhist logicians like Dignaga reject the explicit example member, arguing that the universal concomitance is already implicit in the hetu. The Vaiseshika school includes examples as auxiliary to inference but not as a separate member. The Navya-Nyaya tradition further distinguishes sapaksha-drishtanta (positive example) and vipaksha-drishtanta (negative example).

Verification Notes

• Nyayasutras 1.1.33–36 describe the five-membered syllogism including udaharana.
• Analysis from Nyayabhashya of Vatsyayana.
• Audited against Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies (September 2026).