Ātman

In the Indian philosophical tradition, Ātman (आत्मन्) denotes the innermost self, the eternal witness-consciousness that is the true subject of every experience. It is not the body, breath, senses, mind, or intellect — these are merely vehicles. The Upaniṣadic teaching uses neti neti (“not this, not this”; Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.4.22) to strip away every identified object until only the knower remains.

In Advaita Vedānta, Ātman is declared identical with Brahman — Tat Tvam Asi (“That Thou Art”). The seeker is not becoming something new; the veil of ignorance (avidyā) that projects separateness is removed through knowledge (jñāna).

In the Śākta tantric tradition, Ātman is understood as the microcosmic Śakti — the individual energetic self that is none other than the cosmic Śakti manifest as the personal soul. The aim of sādhanā is the recognition of this identity.

The five sheaths

The Pañcakośa (five sheaths) model from the Taittirīya Upaniṣad (2.1–5) describes the layers concealing the Ātman:

1. Annamaya kośa — the food sheath (physical body)
2. Prāṇamaya kośa — the vital breath sheath (energy body)
3. Manomaya kośa — the mind sheath (thinking faculty)
4. Vijñānamaya kośa — the intellect sheath (discriminating awareness)
5. Ānandamaya kośa — the bliss sheath (causal layer)

In Buddhist critique

Buddhist philosophy critiques the notion of a permanent Ātman, teaching instead anātman (non-self). The analysis of the five khandhas (aggregates), as in the Khandha Saṃyutta, shows that what is taken to be a unified self is actually a collection of impermanent aggregates. Some later developments (e.g., Yogācāra’s ālaya-vijñāna, or tathāgatagarbha thought) have been read as positing an analogous basis of continuity, though these schools deny any permanent self.

Verification notes

• The Upaniṣadic passages cited are from standard critical editions (Deussen 1921, Hume’s translation verified against GRETIL).
• The Pañcakośa list is corroborated across multiple early sources including the Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad and the Yoga Vāsiṣṭha.
• The Śākta perspective reflects the Śākta Ātma-vidyā tradition as documented in the Kularṇavatantra and Vāmakeśvara texts.
• Audited against Wikipedia (September 2026).